3rd INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON PHTHIRAPTERA

Click on numbers within [ ] to go to abstract of poster.

[01]
Impact of host habitat quality on biodiversity of lice: results from China.
Sarah E. Bush, Michelle Reed & Dale H. Clayton

[02]
The lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) of Chile: a revision.
Daniel González-Acuña, Armando C. Cicchino & Eberhard Mey

[03]
Pediculus capitis (De Geer, 1778) infestation in Comodoro Rivadavia (Chubut, Argentina) school children.
Adriana G. Delgado, Rita R. Kurdelas, C. Souto Silva, A. Maure, M. Flores, M. Das Neves Guerreiro, K. Gamarra, R. Martínez, N. Bontes, I. Estrazzalino & N. Jolly

[04]
Pediculicidal activity of lotions based on essential oils from aromatic plants against Pediculus humanus capitis from Argentina.
Paula A. Gonzalez-Audino,, Claudia V. Vassena,, Eduardo N. Zerba & María I. Picollo

[05]
Sexual dimorphism in the albatross louse Harrisoniella hopkinsi (Eichler, 1952).
Edward D. Green & M. L. Turner

[06]
Micromorphological specializations of the falcon louse Laemobothrion tinnunculi.
Edward D. Green & M. L. Turner

[07]
Functional micromorphology of the louse Docophoroides brevis from the wandering albatross.
Edward D. Green & M. L. Turner

[08]
The micromorphological specializations of the sucking louse Linognathus euchore from the springbok Antidorcas marsupialis.
Edward D. Green & M. L. Turner

[08a]
The micromorphology of the giant vulture louse Laemobothrion vulturis.
Edward D. Green, M. L. Turner & F. C. Clarke

[09]
First record of Columbicola gracilicapitis Carriker (Ischnocera: Philopteridae) from Leptotila megalura Sclater & Salvin (Aves: Columbidae) in Argentina.
Leonor Guardia

[10]
New records of Philopteridae (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) from Argentina.
Leonor Guardia

[11]
Investigations on the efficacy of new head louse treatment formulations under laboratory conditions with body lice.
Birgit Habedank, Jutta Klasen, Gabriele Schrader

[12]
Test method for determining the effectiveness of liquid or shampoo insecticides against human lice.
Jutta Klasen, Birgit Habedank & Gabriele Schrader

[13]
Laboratory strain of Pediculus humanus humanus: production of standardized test insects for efficacy testing of head louse products.
Jutta Klasen, Gabriele Schrader & Birgit Habedank

[14]
A hitchhiker's guide to phoresis: Feather lice on louse flies.
Christopher W. Harbison, Kevin Wilding, Matt Jacobsen & Dale H. Clayton

[15]
Clinical evaluation of the Bug Buster kit for the control of head lice at the community level: effectiveness, acceptance and sustainability.
Nigel Hill, M. Cameron, G. Moor, A. Butlin, A. Preston, M. Williamson & C. Bass

[16]
Raising the standard of the labelling and instruction leaflets of treatments for head lice in the UK.
Joanna Ibarra, Frances Fry, Clarice Wickenden & Jane L. Smith

[17]
Potential of entomopathogenic nematodes as biopesticides for sheep lice (Bovicola ovis Schrank) control.
Peter J. James, S. E. Hook & A. P. Cramp

[18]
Entomopathogenic fungi as non-chemical sheep louse (Bovicola ovis Schrank) treatments.
D. M. Leemon, Peter J. James, K. R. Sanson & J. A. McMahon

[19]
The effect of sulphur amino acid supplementation on susceptibility to Bovicola ovis Schrank and associated immune responses in Merino sheep.
S. J. Pain, D. K. Revell, & Peter .J. James,

[20]
Safety and efficacy of Resultz: a new experimental pediculicide rinse.
Nalini Kaul, K. Palma, S. Silagy, A. Maric, D. Rocquigny, W. Lazer, J. Goodman, S. Mason, J. Liebman, D. Gold & B. White

[21]
Method to measure force required to remove Pediculus humanus capitis (Phthiraptera: Pediculidae) eggs from human hair.
Hilde Lapeere, Lieve Brochez, Yves Vander Haeghen, Cyriel Mabilde, Robert H. Vander Stichele, Luc Leybaert & Jean-Marie Naeyaert

[22]
Taxonomic studies on the Neotropical genera and group of species of Hoplopleurinae (Anoplura: Hoplopleuridae).
Daniel Moreira de Avelar & Pedro Marcos Linardi

[23]
Synopsis of the mammal lice fauna of Brazil.
Pedro Marcos Linardi

[24]
Taxonomic studies on the genera Gliricola Mjöberg and Gyropus Nitzsch (Amblycera: Gyropidae) from Brazil.
Michel Paiva Valim and Pedro Marcos Linardi

[25]
Anticholinesterase activity of essential oil components in Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae) and its relationship with their pediculicidal activity.
Ariel C. Toloza, Gastón Mougabure-Cueto, J. Zygadlo, Eduardo N. Zerba & María I. Picollo

[26]
Brueelia amandavae Rékási et Saxena, 2005 (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) from the Red Avadavat Amandava amandava (L.) (Passeriformes: Estrildidae).
József Rékási, Arun Kumar Saxena

[27]
Reduced taxonomic richness of lice in diving birds and mammals.
Bernadett Felsõ & Lajos Rózsa

[28]
Origin of feather holes in the Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica and some other Passerines.
Zoltan Vas, T. Csörgõ, & Lajos Rózsa

[29]
Systematics and characterization of bacterial symbionts from Columbiform bird lice.
Wendy Smith, Kari Smith, Tamar Carter, David Reed, Colin Dale & Dale H. Clayton

[30]
Physiochemical parameters related with the bioactivity among essential oil components against permethrin-resistant Pediculus humanus capitis (Anoplura: Pediculidae).
Ariel C. Toloza, Gastón Mougabure-Cueto, J. Zygadlo, Eduardo N. Zerba & Maria I. Picollo

[31]
A differential response to essential oil vapors of Pediculus humanus capitis and Pediculus humanus humanus (Anoplura: Pediculidae).
Ariel C. Toloza, Gastón Mougabure-Cueto, J. Zygadlo, Eduardo N. Zerba & Maria I. Picollo

[32]
Spinosad, an emergent treatment for human head lice.
Mingyi W. Trimble & David Rowe

[33]
Combs and combing for effective detection and eradication of head lice and nits.
Frances Fry, Joanna Ibarra, Clarice Wickenden & Jane L. Smith

[34]
Community action to remedy neglected head lice in a dysfunctional family.
Frances Fry, Clarice Wickenden & Joanna Ibarra

Studies of biodiversity traditionally focus on charismatic megafauna, such as birds and mammals. In comparison, little is known about the biodiversity of parasites. Recent studies demonstrate significant coextinction of host specific parasites with their hosts. Indeed, recent evidence suggests that, under conditions of poor host habitat quality, parasites can go extinct before their hosts. This suggests that host habitat quality may have an important influence on parasite diversity, but this hypothesis has seldom been tested. The purpose of this study was to test the influence of host habitat quality of the biodiversity of host specific lice. We compared the diversity of lice and other parasites on birds at two localities in Guizhou Province, southern China. The two localities were very similar in elevation, climate, vegetation, and other factors; however, they differed in intensity of logging activity and resulting bird diversity. In this study we collected 300+ birds of 50 species and removed, identified, and quantified their lice. We compare the diversity of lice on birds at the two sites.

The lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) of Chile: a revision.
Daniel González-Acuña¹ & Armando C. Cicchino², Eberhard Mey^3
1 Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 537, Chillán, Chile. danigonz@udec.cl
² Castelli 4117, 7600 Mar del Plata, Argentina.
³ Thuringen Landesmuseum, An der Brucke 3, D-07407 Rudolstadt, Germany.

Phthiraptera are of sanitary importance as they may be vectors of different diseases, they are used also in studies of coevolution, of ecological community, genetic population and have helped to elucidate filogenetic relations of animals. In Chile, information has been scare and sporadic, therefore we are interested in compiling information about this group. Including the new reports that we are making, 232 species of Phthiraptera in 160 different hosts have been described in Chile to the present. In birds, 189 Phthiraptera are found in 124 hosts, represented by 17 orders and 42 families. In mammals, 36 hosts (16 families and 6 orders) was parasited with 43 species of Phthiraptera.

In birds the most reported hosts are Nothoprocta perdicaria, Diomedea melanophrys, Fulmarius glacialoides, Puffinus creatopus, Zenaida auriculata and Phalacrocorax bougainvillii. In mammals the most frequent hosts belong to the domestic animals Canis familiaris and Lama pacos.

At present in Chile there are 8 species of new lice in the process of description, all of which belong to birds. Six of them were found in the order passerifome, one in psitaciforme, one in falcononiforme and one in podicipediforme. The reports found to date in Chile are discussed and compared with Phthiraptological studies of same host in Argentina and globally.

Pediculosis, Pediculus capitis (de Geer, 1778) infestation, is a world widely distributed disease, more frequent in school children, of which epidemiology is not fully known. Patagonia Argentina is not an exception and despite the prevalence increased in last years, no data is available. The present study's objective is to analyze the situation of Pediculosis in school children in Comodoro Rivadavia city (Chubut, Argentina), contrasting different variables (personal attributes) as possible factors of susceptibility to this disease, and determining different degrees of infestation in the school population analyzed. Ten public basic education schools, dependent on provincial government, situated in the southern zone of the city were censored between April and June, 2006. The school population was between 5 and 15 years old. A previously stated experimental design was followed. It included the socialization of the project, an epidemiologic questionnaire and a formal consent for examining children heads. There was a preliminary registration of each child's hair by means of disposable sticks, paying special attention on the retro-auricular and occipital regions of the scalp. When diagnostic elements were observed (nits, eggs or living mobile stages), the head was swept using a metal fine-toothed comb to collect the possible biologic material present. There were 5151 questionnaires collected, the whole study school population. Approximately 27 % of the children were formally authorized for examination, nearly 50 % each sex. According to the infestation degree classification, it was found a higher number of different ages school children with symptoms of past, non-active infestation. Active infestation was observed in children up to 12 years old.

In Argentina, field populations of the head louse Pediculus humanus capitis De Geer (Anoplura: Pediculidae) have developed resistance to permethrin and other pyrethroids. The use of botanical compounds such as essential oils has recently become of great interest as a natural means of lice control. On the other side, the modification of pediculicidal formulations to enhance insecticide activity has shown to be one good strategy to optimize the effectiveness of the available products. In this context, the insecticidal effect of aliphatic alcohols has been evaluated in our lab. Thus, the aim of this work was the development of a pediculicidal lotion containing essential oils from plants and an alcoholic coadjutant to improve biological effect. Ethanol +isopropanol (1+1 in volume) 50% in water and ethanol 96% were taken as solvents for preparation of experimental lotions containing essential oils from plants. Knock down activity of these compositions showed that peppermint, lavender, eucalyptus and orange showed significant knockdown activity and that the mixture of peppermint and eucalyptus oil was the most effective. 1-dodecanol increased effectiveness of all the pediculicidal lotions containing different plant oils, and this difference is significantly important for 1-dodecanol concentration of 10%, reaching a toxic activity compared to the best commercial lotion available in the market.

Harrisoniella hopkinsi are very large lice that infest the wing feathers of the large albatross species. Although both sexes measure approximately 9mm in total length, the males are characterized by greatly enlarged antennae compared to the filiform antennae of the females. These differences were so great that the phthirapterist Kellogg described the nymphs and adult males as separate species in 1914. The additional sexual dimorphic characteristics reported in this paper were observed during a study of H. hopkinsi using both light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

The lice had been collected from nesting wandering albatrosses at Dunedin NZ and fixed in 70% ethanol. After cleaning by ultrasonication, the lice were routinely prepared for SEM and viewed in a Leica Stereoscan 420 SEM at 5 to 10 kV.

Compared to the tubular filiform antennae of the female, the large antennae of the male were further specialized in the following ways. The first three proximal segments were greatly enlarged and elongated in an anterior direction. The first segment (scape) had a lateral toothlike process while the third segment terminated as a hook-like process. The distal two antennal segments of both sexes were similar and both contained the typical sensoria. The head of the male had a clypeal signature that formed a dorsal prominence, which was poorly developed in the female. The posterior parietal margins of the head of the female were distinctly more bulbous than those of the head of the male. The eye lenses of the female were also larger than those of the male. Tergites 1 to VII in the male were fully sclerotized while tergites I to VI in the female were sclerotized laterally but separated by a medial non-sclerotized band. The terminal sternites formed the subgenital plate in the female while in the male the terminal abdominal segment formed the funnel-shaped terminalia which had an arrangement of setae that was species-specific.

While some sexual dimorphism of the antennae and terminalia is common in this family Philopteridae (feather lice), the magnitude of the morphological differences between H. hopkinsi males and females is unique.

Laemobothrion tinnunculi are very large lice that are obligate ectoparasites infesting the feathers of several falcon species, many of which are endangered. These birds are also used in falconry and the lice used in this study were collected from a Lanner falcon at a veterinary clinic in Dubai. Apart from their taxonomical characteristics, little is known about these lice. This study was aimed at investigating the micromorphology of L. tinnunculi by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The lice were fixed in 70% ethanol. After ultrasonic cleaning, the lice were routinely prepared for SEM and viewed in a Leica Stereoscan 420 scanning electron microscope at 5 to 10 kV. The study revealed a number of specializations of these lice that were very dorso-ventrally flattened to fit between the feather barbs. The mandibles were specialized to grasp and shear off pieces of the feather barbule. The anterior maxillary palpi had four segments with the distal tip bearing 14 peglike terminal sensilla which were arranged differently from those in L. maximum. The medial labial palpi had 5 terminal grooved sensillae which is characteristic of Laemobothrion species. The antennae were located in antennal pits which resembled the antennal fossae in fleas. Posterior to the antennal fossae were the eyes, each consisting of a pair of separate lens-covered ommatidia. Ventral to each eye was the cephalic ctenidia a unique organ of unknown function, which consisted of 6 comb-like rows of setae adjacent to an area covered by small scales. This organ may be taxonomic importance as only 5 rows of setae have been reported in both L. maximum and L. vulturis. The separate prothorax was well developed while the fused meso-metathorax resembled the abdominal segments in shape. Each of the legs terminated in two horn-shaped tarsal claws without the normal opposing pretarsal setae found in other feather infesting lice. The femur had a medial groove ventrally, into which the tibia fitted, enabling the feather barbules to be held firmly, as described in L. vulturis. The lateral area of femur III as well as the lateral areas of sternites IV were covered with microtrichia arranged as short comb-like structures, which are characteristic of the sternites IV-V of other Laemobothrion species. However, the number of microtrichia per comb has been reported as varying between 2-7 but in L. tinnunculi it was found to be between 3-10. The round abdominal spiracles were carried dorsally on the tergites of the abdominal segments III-VIII while segments I-II only had small stigmatal scars. A pair of large comma-shaped thoracic spiracles was seen on the lateral surfaces of the prothorax. The lumen were lined by parallel lamellae to form a fine air filter mechanism.

This study elucidated a number of micromorphological structures that may be of taxonomic importance in future comparative studies of Laemobothrion lice.

Docophoroides brevis is a large feather louse infesting the wandering albatross which spends years at a time at sea. This louse, therefore, must be well adapted to remain attached to the host even when the albatross catches fish. This study investigated the micromorphology of D. brevis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in order to obtain a greater understanding of how these lice attach, orientate and feed on their hosts. Lice were collected from nesting wandering albatrosses at Marion Island and fixed in 70% ethanol, ultra-sonicated, routinely prepared for SEM and subsequently viewed in a Leica Stereoscan 420 at 5 to 10 kV.

The studies revealed a robust louse that was dorso-ventrally flattened with a large flattened, shovel-shaped head suited to fit in between the feather barbules. The prominent spinous pre-antennal processes and hooked post-antennal processes help to attach to the barbules. The mandibles were anteriorly notched and medially grooved for improved attachment to the feathers. The terminal notches of the mandibles had sharp cutting edges for clipping the barbules for ingestion. The labrum was uniquely hinged to allow it to cover the mandibles, closing the hypopharynx. This may be an adaptation allowing the louse to survive submersion in water. The labial palpi each had six terminal sensory setae. The characteristic rows of elongated setae on the posteriolateral surfaces of the head, thoracic and abdominal segments were well illustrated in this study. The antennae had five segments, with the terminal segment bearing the sensory peg sensilla of the basiconica sensilla (peg organ). The fourth and fifth segments had sensilla coeloconica containing tuft organs and adjacent plate organs. These sensory sensilla enable the louse to orientate on the host as well as to locate potential mates. Each robust leg ended in a pair of tarsal claws. The larger of these claws interdigitated with three enlarged setae, to lock onto feather barbules. Seven rows of hooked setae on tibia II and eight rows on tibia III, which hook into the feather barbules and hold them securely against the adjacent femur surfaces were observed, as an additional specialization. The round abdominal spiracles were carried dorsally on the tergites of the abdominal segments III - VIII, while segment II only had a small stigmatal scar. A pair of large, slit-shaped thoracic spiracles was seen on the lateral surfaces of the prothorax. The lumen was lined by pediculate scales which covered the underlying filter mechanism. The shape of the terminal tip of the aedeagus is taxonomically important for distinguishing Docophoroides species. In D. brevis it was confirmed to be anchor-shaped with 5 pairs of setae on the dorsal surface and a number of short setae on the ventral margin. This study elucidated a number of functional micromorphological specializations which may be of taxonomic importance in future studies of Docophoroides lice.

Linognathus euchore is an obligate bloodsucking parasite of springbok which during heavy infestation may cause anemia. The five species of Linognathus which have been described from springbok todate are morphologically similar and thus difficult to identify. This particularly applies to the males due to their sexual dimorphism and a lack of diagrammatic illustrations in the literature. In this study the functional micromorphology of both sexes of L. euchore was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as well as additional features of taxonomic importance.

The lice collected from springbok that had been brought to the state veterinary laboratories at Bloemfontein for post mortum, were fixed in 70% ethanol. The lice were cleaned by ultrasonication before being routinely processed for SEM and viewed in a Leica stereoscan 420 at 5 to 10 kV.

The elongated conical head tapered from the enlarged ocular prominences to the haustellum at the anterior tip. Three pairs of hooked denticles for piercing the skin were observed for the first time protruding from the cone-shaped haustellum. The antennal segments IV and V each bore a large pore organ which contained a tuft organ as well as their associated plate organs. The thorax was deeply cleaved and bore a pair of long dorsal setae, a pair of large lateral spiracles and a slender sternal plate. Legs I each bore a slender claw while the claws of legs II and III were extremely robust with well-developed scaled tibial pads for attachment. The abdomen was membranous but also covered by overlapping scales and spinous setae, similar to those reported in the long-nosed cattle louse L. vituli. Abdominal segments III to IV bore single long marginal setae while VI to VII were characterized by pairs of long marginal setae. The numbers and distribution of these elongated marginal setae are used to distinguish between the females of the Linognathus species occurring on springbok. The female gonopods IX were curved medially each bearing a terminal tuft of setae while gonopods X had a medial fringe of short setae. The ventral abdomen of the male had a very large genital plate that reached from segment VII posteriorly and terminated in a single bulbous process. The everted male genitalia revealed a rodlike pseudopenis with lateral ridges which was supported by a pair of slightly curved parameres. Each paramere had a longitudinal keel-like ridge which was a unique feature of L. euchore.

Laemobothrion vulturis is the largest known bird louse infesting several species of vultures and large eagles, many of which are endangered. This study aimed at investigating the micromorphology of L. vulturis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to obtain a greater understanding of how these lice attach to, orientate and feed on their hosts. Lice were collected from disabled Cape Griffons kept at the De Wildt Cheetah and Wildlife Centre, Pretoria. The lice were fixed in 70% ethanol, and routinely prepared for SEM and viewed in a Leica Stereoscan 420 scanning electron microscope at 5 - 10 kV.

The studies revealed a long louse that was dorso-ventrally flattened to fit into the grooves between the feather barbs. It had an anteriorly elongated head with the mouthparts and large hypopharynx anterio-ventrally situated. The mandibles were specialized to grasp and shear off pieces of the feather barbule. The anterior maxillary palpi had four segments and 14 short peglike grooved terminal sensilla while the medial labial palpi had 5 terminal grooved sensillae. The antennae had four segments, the terminal segment being pedunculate and bearing the sensory sensilla. Posterior to the antennal groove were the eyes, each consisting of a pair of separate lens-like ommatidia. Ventral to the eyes was a unique organ of unknown function, which consisted of 5 rows of comb-like setae adjacent to an area covered by small scales. The prothorax was well developed while the meso-metathorax resembled the abdominal segments in shape. Each of the legs terminated in two horn-shaped tarsal claws without the normal opposing pretarsal setae found in other feather infesting lice. The femur, however, had a medial groove ventrally, into which the tibia fitted, enabling the feather barbules to be held firmly. The ventral area of Femur III as well as the lateral areas of sternites V-IV were covered with microtrichia arranged as short comblike structures, which are characteristic of Laemobothrion species. The round abdominal spiracles were carried dorsally on the tergites of the abdominal segments III-VIII while segments I-II only had small stigmatal scars. A pair of large comma-shaped thoracic spiracles was seen on the lateral surfaces of the prothorax. The lumen was lined by parallel lamellae to form a fine filter mechanism. This study elucidated a number of micromorphological structures which may be of taxonomic importance in future studies of Laemobothrion lice.

Two specimens of Leptotila megalura Sclater & Salvin (Large-tailed dove or Yungas dove) were captured in the Yungas jungle in the province of Tucumán, Argentina. One male, six females and 13 larvae of Columbicola gracilicapitis Carriker, 1955 were collected from them. The identification of the lice was based on papers by Carriker and Clayton & Price. Although a single male louse was collected, it was sufficient to identify the species with confidence. Leptotila. megalura lives in the Yunga jungle, from Bolivia to north of Argentina (Provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca and Tucumán). One dove was captured at the foot of Chasquivil Slope (1000 m a.s.l.) in El Siambón, and other in the Sierras de San Javier Provincial Park in the neighborhoods of Las Piedras River (700m a.s.l.), both in the province of Tucumán. This is the first record of C. gracilicapitis for Argentina and also the first record of this genus from Leptotila megalura. Columbicola gracilicapitis was originally described from specimens collected from Leptotila verreauxi. Clayton & Price also recorded it from L. plumbeiceps Sclater & Salvin (Gray-headed Dove) in Mexico, and from L. jamaicensis Linnaeus (White-bellied Dove) in Jamaica and Mexico.

Two species of Philopteridae: Philopterus cotingae Carriker, 1963 and Sturnidoecus rehanae Ansari, 1955 are recorded from to Argentina for the first time. Three females of P. cotingae were collected from one specimen of the white-winged becard, Pachyramphus polycopterus (Viellot) (Passeriformes: Cotingidae), captured in the gallery forest of the Predelta National Park in the province of Entre Rios. The lice were found in the upper region of the head of the host. Carriker´s original paper was used for the identification of P. cotingae. Furthermore, four males and four females of S. rehanae were collected from two Andean slaty thrushes, Turdus nigriceps Cabanis (Passeriformes: Turdidae), captured in the Yunga jungle in the provinces of Jujuy and Tucumán. The lice were found on the under-wing primary feathers of the host. Ansari´s original paper was used for the identification of S. rehanae. All the lice were slide-mounted following the technique proposed by Palma, and deposited in the entomological collection of the “Instituto-Fundación Miguel Lillo”, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina.

In several countries, head lice are resistant against common insecticides like pyrethroids or malathion. In other countries, still no sufficient data are available on resistances. Thus, it is urgently necessary to find alternative head lice treatment products that enable a complete eradication of head lice infestations. There is a variety of products available on the market for head lice control. Some of them are registered medicines, others are sold as medicinal products without proven effectiveness. To evaluate the efficacy of new head louse treatment formulations, laboratory investigations were performed that mimic consumer use of these formulations. Formulations containing (A) coconut oil and derivates, jojoba oil, aloe vera gel, decan acid, (B) tensides, soybean and geranium oils, and (C) Neem were tested. Adult and nymphal lice as well as eggs from a laboratory strain of the human body louse Pediculus humanus humanus were exposed in vitro to the test-formulations for different exposure times using the standard test method of the Federal Environmental Agency (FEA). Mortality as well as microscopically visible pathological changes were registered. In addition, varying application methods for formulation B were tested in order to improve its efficacy. Biological data for lice, information about test substrate (mainly natural hair), weight of used treatment formulations, times of treatment and washing procedures, results and other data were registered. Our results show that Neem (Product C) is not sufficiently effective against lice, whereas products A and B may be promising alternatives to pyrethroids and malathione when properly applied. Generally, the efficacy of head louse treatment formulations is highly dependent on the mode of application. The efficacy of common pediculicides as well as alternative products can be significantly improved with appropriate application schemes and optimised exposure times.

For the testing of medicines for head louse control, the Federal Environmental Agency (FEA) has developed test methods to determine the effectiveness of pediculicidal materials in liquid or shampoo form in the laboratory since many years. As test organism, we use the human body louse Pediculus humanus humanus from a laboratory strain originally from the USDA Orlando. For the test, strands of human hair (about 12 cm long and 0.5 cm in diameter) are infested with 30 body lice (adults or nymphs of defined age). For the infestation of the hair strands with eggs, female lice are kept for 24 hours after a blood meal on the strand to deposit in average 70 to 120 eggs per strand. The infested strands (3 replicates per stage) are treated with undiluted products by dipping for some seconds or applying lower defined doses of the test material to the strain. For pediculicide shampoos, additional testing can be performed with pre- moistened hair strands. To test different exposure times, the treated strands are kept in an incubator at 31°C and 60% relative humidity. After exposure (mainly for 10, 30, 60 or 480 minutes), the strains are gently washed 4 times in a defined amount of 31 °C warm water. The water is filtered to save those lice that fall off the strand. Control groups are washed and kept under same conditions in an separate incubator. The lice are examined under a microscope 1 hour, 6 hours and 24 hours after washing. Percent mortality, corrected by Abbott's Formula, is determined for adults and nymphs. For eggs, the percentage of lively hatched larvae is determined. The results of many laboratory testings of head louse control products have been compared to the results of clinical trials on patients infested with head lice. The experiences show that the results from the presented laboratory tests give a reliable and solid assessment of the effectiveness of pediculicides. Influence of dose and exposure time can be determined as well as changes in the label instructions for product use can be proposed.

The Federal Environmental Agency (FEA) maintains the only laboratory body louse strain in Germany. The laboratory strain was established from lice from a strain at the USDA research laboratory in Orlando (Florida), which was adapted to a rabbit host in the 1940s and is the only strain of human lice that can be maintained without feeding on humans. Experimental experience from more than 50 years has proved that the body louse is an appropriate test organism for testing products for the control of its subspecies relative, the head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis). At the FEA, high numbers of body lice are reared per year for efficacy testing of pediculicide substances and products. Efficacy tests are performed with various age groups of body lice and eggs. The laboratory strain is maintained at the FEA for more than 35 years now, yielding valuable long-term data on the physiology of body lice, on the development of the lice depending on feeding intervals, lice number per feeding group, temperature and other factors. The presentation will give information on developmental data of body louse colonies, dependent on different feeding schemes (4-days of feeding per week compared to 7-days of feeding per week). Data on development time, number of eggs per female and day, mortality rates during development from egg to adult will be presented and implications of these data on pediculicide testing will be discussed.

Feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) have often been recorded hitchhiking rides on louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), a phenomenon known as phoresis. Because louse flies are less host-specific than lice, phoretic lice should encounter novel host species more often than non-phoretic lice. The ability to disperse between host species creates opportunities to break down host specificity and, over macroevolutionary time, erode host-parasite cospeciation. Interestingly, not all lice are phoretic, which can lead to a cascade of ecological and evolutionary differences between phoretic and non-phoretic lice. Columbiformes (pigeons and doves) are host to two groups of ecologically similar feather-feeding lice, body lice and wing lice. While wing lice are commonly phoretic, body lice are not, which can explain why wing lice are less host specific and cospeciate with their hosts less frequently than body lice. While phoresis has many coevolutionary consequences, the proximal basis for this difference in phoretic behavior is not understood. We conducted multiple experiments simulating the steps involved in a phoretic event to compare the phoretic behavior of Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) wing lice and body lice. We show that wing lice are better able to detect and attach to nearby flies when compared to body lice. Additionally, wing lice outperform body lice at remaining attached to flies while they are walking, flying, and grooming. Our results indicate louse attachment behavior during phoresis has many interesting ecological and evolutionary ramifications for host-parasite interactions.

A single blind, randomised controlled clinical trial comparing the Bug Buster® Kit (BB) with conventional over the counter (OTC) pediculicides (Derbac-M®, 0.5% aqueous malathion or Lyclear®, 1% permethrin) was conducted in various sites across the UK. 133 children with confirmed active cases of lice were recruited through GP practices and randomised to either BB or pediculicide. No information other than that provided on the product was provided and treatment was carried out by the family in their own home following manufacturer's instructions. Success / failure was recorded by trained study nurses using wet combing with fine tooth comb on day 15 (BB) or 5 (pediculicide) post-treatment start. Study nurses were unaware of treatment used. Pre-study questionnaires confirmed no difference between treatment groups and that the study population was representative of the general population as a whole. Follow-up questionnaires were completed at endpoint and again at 3, 6 and 12 months. In the study areas, only 8% of local pharmacies recommended double dosing (re-treatment after 7 days) to overcome poor ovicidal activity when pediculicides were purchased OTC. Full methodology and results of the study are published in the British Medical Journal, 13th August 2005, Vol 331. Cure rates for BB were 57 % and for pediculicide were 13 % (malathion 17 %, permethrin 10 %) (relative risk: 4.4 [95%CI 2.3 - 8.5], p0.0000004). all but one of the live lice collected from treatment failures were found to carry the t929i and l932f kdr-type resistance mutations of the para-type sodium channel gene. follow-up of families by questionnaire confirmed the bb kits were being kept and reused by a high proportion of families confirming cost savings over other forms of control. acceptance of both bb and pediculicide was high. pediculicides were reported as being more convenient to use than bb. ease of use and clarity of instructions were good for both product types. during the 12 months post-study follow-up a higher proportion of families switched from pediculicide to bb than from bb to pediculicide. clinical effectiveness and user acceptance / preference from this study indicate bb is a viable alternative to pediculicides for head louse control at the community level under typical otc conditions. however, none of the available treatments are fully effective and new insecticidal actives and / or novel treatments are urgently needed.

In the UK, the National Health Service seeks to promote self-care for minor ailments such as head lice, with health providers in a supporting role. This raises an issue of rights and responsibilities. Parents are held responsible for the detection and treatment of their children's head lice. This responsibility lasts many years because children are at constant risk of infestation, from the time they start socialising with other children, until their mid-teens. Consequently, the right of parents to be protected by the regulatory authorities from poorly-performing treatment products assumes greater importance. The delivery of successful self-care depends on the enforcement of minimum standards. The current reality is that, across the UK, distress and anger prevail among parents whose expectations of a solution are raised by promises on product labelling and then dashed. Examples are “a single application...will kill head lice and their eggs” (e.g. 0.5% phenothrin, Full Marks Liquid; 0.5% malathion, Derbac M), and “for the fast effective treatment of head lice and their eggs” (1% permethrin, Lyclear Crème Rinse). These products were licensed between 15 and 35 years ago. They contain neuro-toxic insecticides to which a population of head lice inevitably becomes resistant with repeated use. Why manufacturers are not required to modify their claims according to the results of regular clinical evaluations is not clear, because of a lack of transparency in the standards applied by the regulatory authorities. Evidence currently available shows that no formulation on the market kills louse eggs with certainty, whether the active ingredients are synthetic insecticides (neuro-toxic or silicone) or plant derived alternatives (which may also be neuro-toxic). In the interest of the public health and fairness to product users, this information should appear on the carton of formulated products. The instruction leaflet should routinely state that the probable duration of the egg stage is 7 to 10 days. Advice should be included explaining the need to make a thorough check for lice before medication, to prove an infestation is active, and at 5 and 12 days afterwards, to check its efficacy. Neuro-toxic preparations should carry a warning against application of any combination more often than once a week for 3 consecutive weeks. Community Hygiene Concern, a health charity established in 1988 to assist parents and professionals to overcome the problem of head lice, call for an open debate of these issues which places the regulatory framework in the public domain. In this context, we welcome the work of the 3rd International Congress on Phthiraptera towards the establishment of objective criteria for the evaluation of product trials.

Treatment of sheep lice infestations relies almost exclusively on the application of chemical pediculicides. Alternatives to chemical methods are required to address concerns about residues in wool, occupational health and safety issues, environmental contamination, the development of resistance in sheep louse populations and increasing 'eco-consciousness' amongst consumers worldwide. Entomopathogenic nematodes (ENs) are microscopic worms that invade insects and release mutualistic bacteria, generally resulting in death of the host within 24 to 48 hours. ENs can be formulated for extended shelf life and applied through most conventional application equipment and are now one of the most widely used classes of biopesticide worldwide. They have been referred to as 'pesticides with the power of search' and have particular advantages for use against pests in cryptic habitats, such as the fleeces of sheep, where it may be difficult to directly contact the target pest with a traditional pesticide. Tests with four species of entomopathogenic nematodes, Steinernema carpocapsae, S. riobrave, S. feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora confirmed the infectivity of all four species to B. ovis. Infective juvenile nematodes of all test species were able to move along wool fibres to infect and kill lice when applied to wool in solution with Tween80 in laboratory studies at 25∞C. However at temperatures above 30∞C only S. carpocapsae and S. riobrave caused significant mortality in most experiments. Preliminary animal studies confirmed the ability of S. carpocapsae to invade and kill B. ovis when applied to live sheep. This is the first report of entomopathogenic nematode pathogenicity to chewing lice.

The annual cost of lice to the Australian wool industry has been estimated at $169 million. Currently the control of lice relies almost exclusively on application of chemicals to the fleece. However the development of resistance to chemicals and concerns about chemical residues left in the fleece in some wool markets mean that alternative methods of control are needed. This poster reports laboratory and some on-sheep investigations into the control of the sheep body louse (Bovicola ovis) with Queensland isolates of the entomopathogenic fungi Metarhizum anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana. Twenty-four isolates of M. anisopliae and eight isolates of B. bassiana selected because of their high optimal growth temperature and good sporulation characteristics were screened for virulence to different stages of B. ovis. Several of these isolates caused 100% mortality to all stages of lice within 7 days in wool based bioassays. Three isolates of B. bassiana and nine isolates of M. anisopliae were selected for dose response studies and their toxicity statistics determined.

Scanning electron microscopy showed that fungal spores applied to wool readily adhered to the louse cuticle, but no germinating spores were observed on the surface of the louse. However, light microscopy showed a large number of spores in the gut within 48 hours of exposure and extensive hyphal growth in louse tissues within 72 hours. Preliminary studies with one of the most toxic strains of M. anisopliae applied to sheep showed that the lipophilic spores adhered well to wool grease and were still viable and highly virulent to lice in laboratory tests after 14 weeks. Formulated Metarhizium spores applied into the fleece of lousy sheep by pressure spraying caused a 96% reduction in louse numbers in comparison to controls. This research demonstrates the potential of fungal biocontrol of sheep lice as an alternative to chemical methods.

Sheep immune responses may regulate the size of sheep chewing louse (Bovicola ovis) populations. Cysteine, a sulphur amino acid and a major component of wool proteins is believed to act as a regulatory signal during immune responses and appears to enhance immune responses of sheep to gastrointestinal parasites. The role of sulphur amino acids in responses associated with epithelial immunity and susceptibility to B. ovis was assessed using 24 Merino wethers (castrated male sheep) previously characterised as having either high or low susceptibility to lice. Half of each 'susceptibility group' was fed a high sulphur amino acid (SAA) ration, whist the remaining half received a control ration that met sulphur requirements (1.18% and 0.57% respectively). High SAA was associated with a 12% higher plasma sulphur concentration (from 25 vs 28 mg/L) and longer wool staple lengths (310 vs 280 ºm/day), consistent with an increased availability of sulphur. All sheep had pre-existing infestations of B.ovis and louse counts were 3-6 times higher (P0.003) in the susceptible animals for the duration of the experiment. faecal eggs counts for trichostrongylus/teladorsagia intestinal nematodes also tended to be higher (p=0.102) in sheep classed as being highly susceptible to lice. blood samples were collected on day -2 and day 69 and differential cell counts carried out. skin hypersensitivity to louse antigens and the t-cell mitogen, phytohaemagglutinin, was assessed on days 60-62. low louse susceptibility sheep had elevated peripheral eosinophils (13.3%) compared to the high susceptibility line (8.5%, p=0.043). there was a swifter immediate response to louse antigens in low louse susceptibility sheep (p=0.067) and in sheep receiving the high saa ration (p=0.051) and a stronger late phase response to phytohaemagglutinin in low louse susceptibility sheep at 24 hours (p=0.007). at 48 hours after intracutaneous injection with louse protein there was a significant interaction between diet type and louse susceptibility (p=0.035), whereby in the low susceptibility animals only, the provision of extra saa reduced the increase in skin thickness (from 0.53 to 0.12 cm, p0.05) but high susceptibility animals did not respond to the saa treatment. this study suggests that nutritional strategies can improve epithelial immune responses, but may interact with underlying differences between individuals in susceptibility to epithelial 'challenge'. the study also supports the concept that susceptibility to internal and external epithelium-feeding parasites is related.

Head lice (Pediculosis capitis) infestation is a pesky, communicable problem affecting children and adults worldwide. Pediculicides are used to treat lice infestations. There is a growing concern that both over the counter and prescription pediculicides are ineffective, either due to non-compliance with label instructions and/ or increasing resistance. Safety and efficacy remain factors as currently available pediculicides fail. Therefore, there is a need for better and safer products. The objective was to evaluate a new insecticide-free pediculicide - RESULTZ" (50% ST-cyclomethicone and 50% isopropyl myristate) for safety and efficacy. Two clinical trials were conducted. The first trial was a proof of concept trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of this experimental product RESULTZ" for treatment of subjects infested with human head lice. Thirty male and female (M/F) subjects (2-59 years) were enrolled. The second clinical trial was a comparative design evaluating the experimental RESULTZ" against a marketed product RIDÆ. This study was an evaluator blinded, randomized, two-treatment arm clinical trial involving 60 M/F subjects (3-32 years). In both trials, subjects were examined for live lice, viable and non-viable nits, and scalp irritation. Evaluations for safety and efficacy were conducted at screening, baseline and days 7, 14 and 21 following treatment. Erythema and edema were monitored during the studies for safety purposes. Adverse events, if any, were documented during the study. Following scalp evaluations, a wide toothed comb was used to detangle hair. Subjects assigned to RESULTZ" had the test product applied to hair until the hair felt wet to touch and left on for 10 minutes. Hair was then rinsed with water and combed for 10 minutes to collect adult lice and nymphs. The lice collected were held in an incubator to determine mortality. RESULTZ" treatment followed the same pattern for both trials. For subjects treated with RIDÆ, instructions as per RIDÆ label were followed. After RIDÆ application, hair was rinsed with water and combed for 10 minutes. Following treatment with RESULTZ" or RIDÆ up to 10 adult and nymphal lice were collected. If subjects still had lice on Day 21, then RESULTZ" treated subjects were given the standard course of therapy, while subjects treated with RIDÆ were offered a full comb out (lice and nit free). Subjects were considered successes if they required two or less treatments over the 21-day evaluation period. Mild, transient erythema and/or pruritis was observed in several subjects for both RESULTZ" and RIDÆ. Both trials exhibited efficacy for RESULTZ". On comparing lice mortality on day 0 and 7, between RESULTZ" and RIDÆ, a significant difference at all time points (0, 3 and 6 hours) favoring RESULTZ" (p0.0001) was observed. based on ingredient safety (common cosmetic ingredients vs. insecticides), ease of use (rinse off), no limitation on frequency of use (compared to 1-2 wk waiting period for insecticides) and fast action (10 minutes) resultz" appears to be a viable and effective treatment.

Head lice are very common and mainly affect children between 3 and 12 years old. Little is known about the way nits, the eggs of the head louse, are attached to the hair and how they can be removed. Apparently the female louse first produces a quick hardening substance which is spread along the hair and egg. After hardening of the substance both hair and egg are surrounded by a sheath of solid material. The part encircling the hair shaft is called the nit cylinder. Little is known about the composition of the nit cylinder and eggshell but Burkhart and colleagues found that this substance mainly consists of proteins. Several authors have suggested products to remove nits but until now, no objective procedure to measure the force needed to remove nits has been described in scientific literature. In this report we describe how such an objective measurement procedure can be constructed with material that is readily available. Several parameters such as the first peak force, maximum force and average force needed to remove a nit have been measured. Basic parameters of the hair and eggshell, such as distance from the nit to the proximal end of the hair, length of the nit cylinder and diameter of the hair were measured. A positive correlation was found between all force parameters and the length of the nit cylinder. A negative correlation was found between the distance of the eggshell and the maximum force needed to remove it. The procedure described is an affordable, feasible and reliable method to determine the difficulty or ease to remove eggshells from human hair. This method can be used to evaluate the efficacy of nit removal products.

Among the genera of Anoplura included into the family Hoplopleuridae, Hoplopleura Enderlein is the most important because its geographical distribution, number of species (133) and the involvement of some species in the maintenance of the endemic typhus among rodents. In Neotropical Region, 41 species are spread from South America through Central America and Mexico. Another genus, Pterophthirus Ewing is constituted by five South American species, having been withdrawn from Hoplopleura. Conjunctly with Ferrisella Ewing, recently revalidated to include a new species and other four also withdrawn of Hoplopleura, the three genera belong to subfamily Hoplopleurinae. Both Pterophthirus and Ferrisella have host preferences for rodents of the Suborder Hystricognathi, rather than sigmodontines (Suborder Sciurognathi), as observed for Hoplopleura. It is also important to stress that in Hoplopleura there are several marked species groups within the genus; otherwise, one species of Pterophthirus has been considered as intermediate between the two genera. As a Ph.D. thesis of D. M. A. in Parasitology/Programa de Pós-graduação em Parasitologia/Instituto de Ciências Biológicas/Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), we are starting a research using cladistic analysis for a more precise systematic evaluation among the taxa involved. Species and specimens of Neotropical Hoplopleuridae, including material in alcohol, are being examined in the collections of Phthiraptera at Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (Werneck Collection), Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Museum of Zoology of the University of São Paulo and Department of Parasitology of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte/MG. Although only 36 species of Anoplura have been recorded in Brazil, of which 38.9% are Hoplopleurinae, other 12 hoplopleurid species may be also found, since Brazil is constituted by several biomes, centres of origin or dispersal and refugia of mammal species, with large unexplored areas in which the fauna is little known, including the lice with which these animals are associated.

Currently, the fauna of lice that infest mammals is composed of approximately 1,100 species worldwide, with similar numbers between chewing (554) and sucking lice (532). Despite its vast geographic range, only 79 chewing lice species (ca. 14.2% of the whole world fauna), representing 20 genera and 5 families have been recorded in Brazil. The mammal orders are found infested in the following percentages: Rodentia (62.0%), Carnivora (16.4%), Primates (6.3%), Artiodactyla (10.1%), Didelphimorphia (2.5%), Edentata (1.3%), and Proboscidea (from Zoological Garden: 1.3%). Brazilian anoplurofauna comprises 7 families, 10 genera and 36 species, constituting ca. 6.8% of the known species, including 17 cosmopolitan. Nineteen species (52.8%) infest rodents. It is important to stress that Brazil has the largest mammal diversity in the world, with almost 600 described species, 90 of which are known to harbor chewing lice. It should be also noted that the Neotropical region contains a diversity of biomes and at least 40 dispersion centres, 13 of which are located in Brazil. Several regions remain unexplored or little studied, and some of these are situated at the confluence of biomes or in contiguous morphoclimatic domains between neighbouring countries. Approximately 18% of mammal species occur in the Atlantic Rain Forest that also concentrates 39.2% of chewing lice and 22.2% of Anoplura. In other Brazilian biomes, the following percentages of mammals have been observed: Pampas (13%), Cerrado (12%), Pantanal (11%), Amazon (7%), Caatinga (6%). Chewing and sucking lice have been respectively found in these biomes in the following percentages: Pampas (1.3% and 0%), Cerrado (5.1% and 8.3%), Pantanal (7.6% and 0%), Amazon (21.5% and 16.7%), Caatinga (6.3% and 5.6%). Because of the proximity of certain biomes with the same host species, others 20 Anoplura species (including lice from marine mammals) and 40 Mallophaga species may be also found in Brazil.

The family Gyropidae present Neotropical distribution, with only two cosmopolitan species reaching the Neartic Region. It includes nine genera and 96 species, with Gliricola and Gyropus being the most important genera because their geographical distributions, diversity of hosts and number of species. Currently, Gliricola and Gyropus include 42 and 17 species respectively, of which 50% were described by Werneck between 1933 and 1951. Rodents are the preferential hosts for Gyropydae, being parasitized by species of Gliricola + Gyropus in the following percentages: Abrocomidae (100%), Caviidae (66.7%), Echimyidae (48.3%), Ctenomyidae (37%), Capromyidae (36.4%), Octodontidae (12.5%) and Muridae (12.5%). In Brazil, of 79 species of chewing lice that infest mammals, 17 are included in Gliricola and other 17 in Gyropus. Host preferences for chewing lice in Brazil exhibit the following distribution by Orders: Rodentia (62.0%), Carnivora (16.4%), Artiodactyla (10.1%), Primates (6.3%), Didelphimorphia (2.5%), Proboscidea (from Zoological Garden) and Perissodactyla (1.3% each). Contrary to the studies in other countries, up till now, no taxonomic revisions based on morphology were made in Brazil, in spite of synonymies, individual variations, subspecies and subgenera recognized within these genera. Future studies should thus focus the ratification or rectification of the taxa, as well as the louse-host relationships to evidence patterns of evolutionary associations. At the moment we are starting a taxonomic revision of these two genera by cladistic methods, as part of Ph.D. thesis of M.P.V. in Parasitology in the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte/Brazil. Species and specimens of Gyropydae, including material in alcohol, are being examined from collections of Phthiraptera at Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (Werneck Collection), Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Museum of Zoology of the University of São Paulo and Department of Parasitology of the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte/MG. This study will result in the first phylogeny for the family Gyropidae.

During past decades, the intensive use of permethrin against populations of Pediculus humanus capitis from Buenos Aires, Argentina has resulted in the development of resistance. Thus, the need of new “environmental friendly” control alternatives has become of great interested. Essential oils (EO) seem to be good candidates because most of them are consider as safe products. However, little is known about their mode of action. According to the signs of toxicity, it has been proposed that some essential oils could posses neurotoxic effects, similar to those produced by such insecticides as organophosphates and carbamates. The aim of this work was to analyze the potential competitive inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by essential oil components and its relation with the toxic effect. Biochemical inhibition of acetylcholinesterase was established by 3 assays: an in vitro method employing cholinesterase isolated from electric eels, an ex vivo method employing homogenate from head lice; and in vivo method employing head lice exposed to vapours of 1.8 cineole. A microplate reader was employed to measure acetylcolinesterese activity in all the cases. Concerning in vitro study, the components that showed high inhibition values were 1.8 cineole, pulegone, thymol and bencyl alcohol. For other studies, 1.8 cineole was chosen. With respect to ex vivo analysis, the inhibition concentration 50% (IC50) of 1.8 cineole was obtained. Finally, in the in vivo assay, no correlation was found between neurotoxic symptoms and the cholinesterase inhibition of exposed head lice to vapors of 1.8 cineole. In the present study, activity in vivo was not correlated with acetylcholinesterase activity ex vivo. Although 1.8 cineole showed anticholinesterase activity, it seems that the mentioned inhibition activity is not the main responsible of the pediculicidal activity of these essential oil component. Another possible mode of action of the essential oils is discussed.

The new chewing louse species Brueelia amandavae was described on the base of 2 males and 3 females collected from Red Avadavat (Red Munia) Amandava amandava (L.) (Passeriformes: Estrildidae) captured in Rampur, India. This is the first Ischnoceran louse described from this host.

The chewing louse genus Brueelia Keler, 1936 is one of the largest genera of Ischnoceran lice with cc. 260 described species. This genus exhibits a relatively broad host distribution; occurring on at least 41 families of birds in 4 orders. Brueelia lice are also one of the most characteristic genera found on passerines (Passeriformes), the largest avian order. They appear to be more host-specific than most other genera of lice, with the majority (cc. 90%) of species known only from a single host species. However, only a very few species were ever described from Estrildid finches up to the present day.

African Estrildid finches are known to harbour two species of Brueelia lice, Bruellia astrildae Tendeiro & Mendes, 1994 and B. lonchurae Tendeiro & Mendes, 1994 parasitizing the common waxbill Estrilda astrild sousae Reichenow, 1904 and the bronze mannikin Lonchura cucullata cucullata (Swainson), 1837 respectively. In Asian Estrildids, B. eichleri Lakshminarayana, 1969 parasitise the pale-headed mannikin Lonchura maja (L.) while B. munia Ansari, 1955 is harboured by the Indian silverbill L. malabarica (L.). Finally, B. stenozona Kellogg & Chapman, 1902 is known from the nutmeg mannikin (i.e. the scaly breasted munia) L. punctulata nisoria (Temminck) introduced to the Hawaiian Islands.

The Red Avadavat (i.e. Red Munia) Amandava amadava (L.) is an Estrildid finch widespread in the reedbeds, grasslands, scrubs and farmlands from the Indian subcontinent through Indochina to the Lesser Sunda Islands, and itroduced also to Egypt, Arabia, Philippines, Fiji and Hawaii. Only a Menoponid louse was known from this bird. Two male and 3 female Brueelia lice were collected by the 2nd author in Rampur, India, 2004 from Red Avadavats. They were preserved in alcohol, posted to Hungary, and - unfortunately - became slightly damaged at the customs. After slide-mounting, we carried out a taxonomic study with decisions based on louse morphology exclusively, with no a priori consideration of host relationships.

The 2 males and 3 females examined by us differs in measurements, shape, chaetotaxy and pigmentation from other known Brueelia spp. Thus individuals collected from Amandava amandava (L.) represented a new species, Brueelia amandavae Rékási et Saxena, 2005.

Lice occupy different habitats on the host that the physical environment outside the host body may affect in several ways. Interactions between host plumage or pelage and water may be an important source of such effects. Here we use a comparative approach to examine the effect of birds' and mammals' diving behaviour on the taxonomic richness of lice. We compared the mean genera richness of lice, the mean species richness of host, and the mean body mass of host between diving clades and their non-diving sister clades. Diving birds and aquatic mammals were defined as animals that dive beneath the water surface with their complete body. Non-diving birds were defined as either terrestrial, or aquatic birds that acquire food from the water surface. Non-diving mammals were terrestrial species. Felsenstein's independent contrast method was used to control for effects of phylogenetic association between taxa. Independent differences were created by comparing the values for sister taxa in the phylogeny.

Louse genera richness was significantly lower in clades of diving birds and mammals than on their non-diving sister-clades. Host species richness and body mass were either not differing significantly between these clades, or the direction of the difference could not explain the difference in parasite richness. This study suggests that hosts' diving behaviour effectively shape ectoparasite communities.

Fifteen years ago, characteristic feather holes were found on the retrices, primaries and secondaries of the Barn Swallow. Based on a positive correlation between hole numbers and intensity of infestation, holes were interpreted as feeding traces of Machaerilaemus malleus. Since then, a number of influentual papers have been published on the evolutionary ecology of host-parasite interactions based on this assumption. Few authors cautioned, however, that the origin of holes has never been tested accurately. We found the following reasons to question whether M. malleus could be the causative agent of these symptoms:

1. M. malleus is a large-bodied and oval-shaped Amblyceran, apparently not adapted to stay on the vane (aerodynamic surface) of major tail and wing feathers;
2. According to published data based on traditional collection methods, M. malleus appears to be a very rare species in Europe whereas feather holes are highly prevalent (cca. 90-98 %);
3. Similar feather holes were also described from House Sparrows Passer domesticus, birds that are not known to host any Machaerilaemus lice;
4. The only other case of tail feather holes interpreted as louse feeding traces were apparently produced by a relatively narrow-bodied Ischoceran Paragoniocotes meridionalis.

1. The shape of frequency distribution of feather holes corresponds to the idea that it reflects intensity of infection by a contagious pathogen;
2. The finding that the frequency distribution of feather holes in a sample taken from a large colony is less aggregated than that of a random sample also corresponds well to previous results on the relationship between host coloniality and measures of louse infections;
3. Collections with fumigants revealed that M. malleus is a rare species indeed;
4. Collections with fumigants revealed that Brueelia domestica is much more prevalent in Barn Swallows than indicated by former literature data based on traditional collection methods;
5. B. domestica, being a narrow-bodied Ischnoceran “wing louse” has a body structure well adapted to stay on the vane of major tail and wing feathers;
6. The presence or absence of feather holes on the primaries, secondaries and retrices of small-bodied passerines fits well to the known presence or absence of Brueelia spp. in an iterspecific comparison.

We conclude that it was most probably right to claim that feather holes were traces of louse feeding. On the other hand, however, we propose that lice were probably misidentified; holes are most likely to be feeding traces of Brueelia domestica in Barn Swallows and other Brueelia spp. in other small passerines. This likely error has implications on our knowledge on louse biology, however, it does not challange the validity of more general evolutionary ecological studies based on this host-parasite system.

Symbiotic bacteria are found in many insects that consume nutritionally incomplete diets. Most such bacteria are known from insect groups that feed on plant materials or blood. Few studies have examined insects feeding on corneous substances such as feathers. We examined the distribution of bacteria found in chewing lice of the genus Columbicola. These lice are ectoparasites of Columbiform birds (pigeons and doves), where they feed on feathers and dead skin. Although a good deal of work has been carried out on the co-phylogenetics of chewing lice and their hosts, little is known about the a third tier in these coevolutionary relationships - that of chewing lice and their symbiotic bacteria. To this end we sequenced 16SrDNA from bacteria in 25 species of Columbicola and 1 sister species. Our results indicate that each species of louse harbors just one species of bacterial symbiont. Phylogenetic analysis supports the presence of two clades of symbiotic bacteria within the genus Columbicola (Type I and Type II), but no evidence for parallel cladogenesis of lice and bacteria. These data may point to the replacement of basal symbiotic bacteria with a derived symbiont in the genus Columbicola. This process has been postulated for other insect-bacterial symbioses and conflicts with the notion that symbiotic interactions become fixed over evolutionary time.

Resistance to permethrin and other pyrethroids in Pediculus humanus capitis from Buenos Aires, Argentina, was previously reported by our laboratory in 1997. The use of essential oils for the control of resistant head lice is an interesting alternative to permethrin because they are environmental friendly and not acutely toxic to mammals. Previous studies in our laboratory have shown the fumigant and repellent activity of native and exotic essential oils and their components. The purpose of the present study was to determine physiochemical parameters related with pediculicidal activity relationships among the effective essential oil components. Head lice were collected from heads of infested children 5-12 yr old, using an antilouse comb. Once the fumigant (knockdown time 50% KT50s) and repellent (Repellency indexes RI) data were collected, a multiple linear regression analysis was performed to examine relations among KT50s, RIs and either their respective vapor pressures or octanol-water partition coefficient values (log P). Fumigant regression analysis revealed a significant correlation between KT50 and corresponding vapor pressures of the effective components of essential oils when considered as a single predictor (r2=0.42, F=5.74, P0.05). thus, the more volatile the compound, the more effective it was as a fumigant. in contrast, kt50s were independent of log p values for the same compounds (r2=0.001, f=0.01, p0.937). when both predictors were included, the resulting model showed a better correlation (r2=0.73, f=8.14, p0.05). concerning repellency regression analysis, either the regressions between ris and vapor pressures or ris and log p showed r2=0.001 and p0.05. Most of the components that were effective in vapor phase were not the same that were effective as repellents in contact exposure. Our results provide indications of a possible difference between the knockdown and repellency targets of essential oils components.

The head and body louse are conspecific and are obligate human ectoparasites that differ on their preferred location on the host. It has been suggested that both posses similar toxicological response and either head or body lice could be employed in laboratory assays. In recent years, the use of essential oils for pest control has received great interest because of their lower mammalian toxicity and low persistence in the environment. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the vapor activity of three Eucalyptus essential oils compared to the synthetic insecticide DDVP against field permethrin-resistant head lice from Buenos Aires and a laboratory body lice strain. Head lice were collected from heads of infested children 6-12 yr old, using a fine toothed antilouse comb. Fumigant activity was evaluated in an enclosed chamber that allowed to create a vapor system. Control consisted of the enclosed chamber without the addition of any substance. The number of knockdown head and body lice was recorded every 5 min for 1h, and then a Probit regression analysis was made to determine the knockdown time 50% (KT50) of the tested components. There was a significant differential response between head and body lice to the evaluated essential oils. Head lice were more susceptible to the vapors of Eucalyptus viminalis, Eucalyptus saligna and Eucalyptus cinerea than body lice; with KT50 values of 18.16, 16.04 and 19.25 min, respectively. However, no significant toxicological difference was found when head and body lice were exposed to vapors of DDVP, with KT50 values of 21.99 and 31.51, respectively. The differential toxicological susceptibility of head and body lice related with permethrin resistance is discussed.

An experimental pediculicide, Spinosad Crème Rinse, is being developed for the treatment of human head lice (Pediculosis capitis). Spinosad, the active ingredient, is derived from the fermentation process of a soil bacterium (Saccaropolyspora spinosa). From various in vitro and in vivo studies conducted, Spinosad demonstrated high efficacy against human head lice and low mammalian toxicity after exposing animals both systemically and topically. Spinosad in the crème rinse formulation has shown a 100% kill rate against ova (nits) and a 97-100% kill rate against juvenile and adult lice (crawlers) after an acute exposure at concentrations as low as 0.5% in vitro. In an in vivo positive and negative controlled study, Spinosad 1% and 2% crème rinse were 100% effective at killing lice after a single 10-minute application in 35 lice infested volunteers. Those patients remained lice free 7 and 14 days post-treatment. A high level of efficacy against both nits and crawlers after one single application without combing promotes patient compliance, thereby interrupting the cycle of lice re-infestation and decreasing the chance of a development in insect drug resistance. These early phase studies illustrate that Spinosad Crème Rinse is a promising new lice treatment product that is both safe and effective.

Use of a reliable method to diagnose head lice and to check the efficacy of any treatment is crucial to control. We define the developmental stages of head infestation as: lice, 3 nymphal stages and full-grown louse; eggs, live or dead; nits, empty eggshells. The weakness of traditional screening, known as visual inspection, is that lice are not readily seen. This is because, in dry hair, lice move rapidly away from disturbance. The diagnosis tends to rely on finding “nits”. Empty eggshells and scalp secretions wrapped round the hair shaft (“hair muffs”) can be confused with eggs. Ideally, a microscope should be used to ascertain if a “nit” is an egg, and, if so, whether it is viable or not. The importance, firstly, of finding a louse to prove that an infestation is active, and, secondly, of community education on wet methods of detection, was highlighted by Ibarra in 1988. It was found that wet lice stay still and that ordinary hairwashing conveniently produces thoroughly wet lice. They can be revealed by passing a fine-tooth plastic comb through the wet hair. Working under the auspices of the health charity, Community Hygiene Concern, Fry perfected the method described by Ibarra. Successively, shampooed hair is prepared with a generous amount of ordinary hair conditioner, combed through with a wide-tooth comb, the entire head is fine-tooth combed, the conditioner is rinsed off and fine-tooth combing is repeated in the wet hair. This produced the full Bug Busting wet combing method for detection. With Ibarra and Wickenden, Fry developed a pilot Bug Buster Kit in 1995. This could be used to diagnose active infestation initially. Subsequently, it could be used systematically to eradicate an infestation in 4 sessions spaced evenly over 2 weeks. Methodical removal of hatched lice alone breaks the life-cycle. No medicated product or egg removal is required. Only empty eggshells, true nits, are left on the head. Experimentation continued to improve the accuracy of the Bug Buster comb. In 1998 these investigations led to the current model of the Bug Buster comb and the Nit Buster. The exact balance between the slim handle and the deep bevel on the edge of the teeth, facilitates gentle insertion into the hair at the roots. The Nit Buster comfortably combs out nits, with the cement sheath intact, after the conditioner used during Bug Busting has made the hair silky. Normally, nit removal is an optional cosmetic procedure performed after louse removal is complete. Families should be routinely instructed in the most reliable detection method and reusable mechanical methods of control of proven effectiveness. If Bug Busting wet combing is identified as the gold standard detection method, the relative sensitivity of other fine-combing methods such as the Belgian variation (wetting the hair rather than washing it) application of conditioner to dry hair, or merely combing dry hair, should be measured against it.

A family, consisting of a mother and 8 children, living in London UK, contracted head lice. The children's heads were shaved. At the primary school of the 4 youngest, 1 boy and 3 girls, staff were appalled at the girls' loss of self-esteem. When their hair grew back it was unkempt. A year later it was matted together with nits, impeding penetration of medication to the roots. The 7 year old had become a selective mute; scalp impetigo was treated orally. The 4 year old had scalp psoriasis. School and community nursing staff wished to comb the girls' hair in school, but were defeated by the enormous difficulty. They consulted the health charity, Community Hygiene Concern (CHC). At assessment by CHC staff, using a Bug Buster Kit, nearly 1,000 lice were removed from about an eighth portion of the hair of the 6 year old. Healthy lice, flicked or rubbed from the head, are viable, unlike those nearing death, which fall or wander off causing no harm. Healthy lice re-establish if they reach a human head within approximately 2 days. At temperatures above 23ºC, they die sooner of dehydration. Where handling a heavy infestation may be hazardous, first reduce louse numbers by applying isopropyl alcohol to the dry hair. Collect stupefied lice that fall off the head using a vacuum cleaner. Thereafter, work in wet hair using a Bug Buster Kit. Whilst lice are wet they remain immobile and can be disposed of safely with ease. Drape the patient in the cape provided and work in a hard surface area (e.g. kitchen) simplifying the collection of lice that fall during combing. Put paper and fabric towels used into separate plastic bags. Wash fabric towels in copious water to rinse away lice. These precautions taken, continuous lines of nits down the hair shaft obstructed the passage of the Bug Buster comb used to remove lice. Even cautious use of a metal nit comb was precluded as the pain inflicted would lose patient co-operation. Two CHC staff worked with great patience and empathy during 2 lengthy home visits. Diligent combing of the wet, conditioned hair with a wide-tooth comb enabled trimming of as much matted hair as possible, leaving a sensible length. This started to make the hair manageable. Gradually a Bug Buster louse comb could be used to remove numerous lice. In these extreme conditions, full louse removal was not assured. However, CHC took the only practicable actions to restore the girls' social acceptability and allow school and family support staff to maintain control and eventual eradication. The girls' self-esteem improved, especially the 7 year old. All parents of the school pupils were provided with Bug Busting materials and asked to use them on a designated date. Thereafter, complaints about head lice ceased for the remaining half term. In conclusion, late intervention in this case caused the utmost distress and great expenditure of resources. Health and school staff should unite to prevent asymptomatic lice from circulating, introducing knowledgeable hands-on support as soon as dysfunctional families are identified. This safeguards their children's self-esteem and prevents the formation of an intractable reservoir of infection in the community.